CLIMATOLOGY-2

                          CLIMATOLOGY

1.1 TEMPERATURE AND ITS DISTRICUTION

1.2 INVERSION O TEMPERATURE

1.3 ATMOSPHERRIC CIRCULATIONS AND AIR PRESSURE

1.1 TEMPERATURE AND ITS DISTRICUTION:

The distribution of temperature on Earth varies due to factors such as latitude, altitude, proximity to large bodies of water, ocean currents, and geographic features. Understanding these factors helps explain the diverse temperature patterns observed across the globe.

1. Latitude:

   - Temperature generally decreases with increasing latitude from the equator towards the poles.

   - Near the equator, the Sun's rays are more direct, leading to higher temperatures. At higher latitudes, sunlight is spread over a larger area, resulting in lower temperatures.

2. Altitude:

   - Temperature decreases with increasing altitude. This is known as the lapse rate, where the atmosphere cools by approximately 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer.

   - High-altitude locations, such as mountainous areas, can experience cooler temperatures compared to lowland regions.

3. Proximity to Water Bodies:

 Oceans and large lakes moderate temperatures. Water has a higher specific heat capacity than land, meaning it can absorb and release heat more slowly.

   - Coastal areas experience milder temperature variations compared to continental interiors. This is known as the maritime effect.

4. Ocean Currents:

   - Ocean currents can transport warm or cold water over long distances, influencing the temperature of coastal areas.

   - For example, the North Atlantic Drift, an extension of the Gulf Stream, warms the western coast of Europe.

5. Geographic Features:

   - Mountain ranges can create rain shadows, where one side receives more precipitation and has milder temperatures, while the leeward side is drier and experiences more extreme temperatures.

   - Large bodies of water, like the Great Lakes in North America or the Caspian Sea, can influence the climate of nearby regions.

6. Seasonal Changes:

   - The tilt of the Earth's axis causes seasonal changes in temperature. Regions experience different temperatures during different times of the year, with summer and winter being the most pronounced seasons in temperate zones.

7. Global Wind Patterns:

   - Atmospheric circulation patterns, such as the Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells, influence temperature distribution. These cells contribute to the movement of air masses and the distribution of heat around the globe.

8. Urban Heat Islands:

   - Urban areas often have higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to human activities, such as the concentration of buildings and infrastructure, which absorb and re-radiate heat.

Understanding the distribution of temperature is essential for studying climate patterns, predicting weather, and assessing the impacts of climate change. Scientists use temperature data from various sources, including ground-based weather stations, satellites, and climate models, to analyze global and regional temperature trends.

1.2 INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE :

An inversion of temperature refers to a departure from the normal atmospheric conditions where the usual temperature profile with altitude is reversed. Normally, the Earth's atmosphere experiences a decrease in temperature with an increase in altitude, known as a lapse rate. However, during an inversion, the temperature increases with height, creating a layer of warm air overlying cooler air below.

Key characteristics of temperature inversions include:

1. Formation:

Inversions often form under specific meteorological conditions, such as clear and calm nights when the Earth's surface cools rapidly by radiating heat into space.

 Inversions can also occur in valleys, where cold air becomes trapped and cannot easily mix with warmer air aloft.

2. Types of Inversions:

 Radiation Inversion: Forms during clear, calm nights as the Earth's surface loses heat rapidly. The ground cools, and the air in contact with it becomes cooler than the air above.

  Advection Inversion: Results from the horizontal movement (advection) of air. Warm air is transported over a colder surface, preventing vertical mixing.

  Frontal Inversion: Associated with the lifting of warm air over a frontal boundary. The warm air glides over a cooler air mass, creating a temperature inversion.

3. Effects:

   - Temperature inversions can lead to the trapping of pollutants near the surface. Under normal conditions, air near the surface rises, allowing pollutants to disperse. In an inversion, the stable layer prevents vertical mixing, trapping pollutants and leading to degraded air quality.

   - Inversions can also lead to the formation of fog and low-level clouds, especially in valleys.

4. Impacts on Weather:

   - Inversions can have significant impacts on local weather conditions. For example, they can inhibit the vertical development of thunderstorms and limit the vertical dispersion of clouds.

5. Disruption of Normal Temperature Gradients:

   - Inversions disrupt the typical decrease in temperature with altitude. This has implications for aviation, as it can lead to the formation of temperature inversions at specific altitudes that may affect aircraft operations.

Understanding temperature inversions is crucial for various fields, including meteorology, air quality management, and aviation. Meteorologists use data from weather balloons, satellites, and ground-based observations to monitor and predict the occurrence of inversions, especially when assessing potential impacts on local weather conditions and air quality.

1.3 ATMOSPHERRIC CIRCULATIONS AND AIR PRESSURE :

Atmospheric circulations and air pressure are closely connected and play a crucial role in shaping weather patterns on Earth. The movement of air is influenced by differences in temperature and pressure, leading to the development of global and regional circulation patterns.

Atmospheric circulations and air pressure are closely connected and play a crucial role in shaping weather patterns on Earth. The movement of air is influenced by differences in temperature and pressure, leading to the development of global and regional circulation patterns.

Atmospheric Circulation:

1. Hadley Cell:

   - Near the equator, solar heating is intense, causing air to rise. This rising air creates a low-pressure zone.

   - As the air ascends, it cools and moves poleward at high altitudes. Eventually, it descends around 30 degrees latitude, forming high-pressure zones.

2. Ferrel Cell:

   - At mid-latitudes (around 30 to 60 degrees), the descending air from the Hadley Cell creates high-pressure zones.

   - Air near the surface moves towards the poles, but due to the Coriolis effect, it is deflected, creating westerly winds.

3. Polar Cell:

   - Near the poles, the descending air creates high-pressure zones. Surface winds move towards lower latitudes.

   - At high altitudes, the polar easterlies are formed.

Surface Winds:

1. trade winds :

   - Near the equator, the surface winds move from high-pressure regions (subsidence zones) towards the low-pressure zone of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

   - In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the northeast, and in the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the southeast.

2. Westerlies:

   - Between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, the surface winds move towards the poles, but due to the Coriolis effect, they are deflected to the east.

   - In the Northern Hemisphere, these are the prevailing westerlies blowing from the southwest. In the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the northwest.

3. Polar Easterlies:

   - Near the poles, the surface winds move from the high-pressure regions towards the mid-latitudes, creating the polar easterlies.

Air Pressure:

1. High-Pressure Systems:

   - High-pressure systems are associated with descending air. They are often characterized by clear skies and stable weather conditions.

   - Subtropical highs are examples of high-pressure systems found around 30 degrees latitude.

2. Low-Pressure Systems:

   - Low-pressure systems are associated with ascending air. They often bring unsettled weather, clouds, and precipitation.

   - The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low-pressure system near the equator.

3. Cyclones and Anticyclones:

   - Cyclones are low-pressure systems characterized by counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.

   - Anticyclones are high-pressure systems with clockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere.

Understanding atmospheric circulation and air pressure is fundamental to meteorology. It helps meteorologists predict weather patterns, including the development of storms, precipitation, and shifts in temperature. These patterns also influence the distribution of climates around the world.